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Revision as of 14:06, 31 August 2017

Edit Values
Skylake (server) µarch
General Info
Arch Type	CPU
Designer	Intel
Manufacturer	Intel
Introduction	May 4, 2017
Process	14 nm
Core Configs	4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28
Pipeline
Type	Superscalar
OoOE	Yes
Speculative	Yes
Reg Renaming	Yes
Stages	14-19
Instructions
ISA	x86-16, x86-32, x86-64
Extensions	MOVBE, MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, POPCNT, AVX, AVX2, AES, PCLMUL, FSGSBASE, RDRND, FMA3, F16C, BMI, BMI2, VT-x, VT-d, TXT, TSX, RDSEED, ADCX, PREFETCHW, CLFLUSHOPT, XSAVE, SGX, MPX, AVX-512
Cache
L1I Cache	32 KiB/core 8-way set associative
L1D Cache	32 KiB/core 8-way set associative
L2 Cache	1 MiB/core 16-way set associative
L3 Cache	1.375 MiB/core 11-way set associative
Cores
Core Names	Skylake X, Skylake SP
Succession
Broadwell Cascade Lake
Contemporary
Skylake (client)

Skylake (SKL) Server Configuration is Intel's successor to Broadwell, an enhanced 14nm+ process microarchitecture for enthusiasts and servers. Skylake succeeded Broadwell. Skylake is the "Architecture" phase as part of Intel's PAO model. The microarchitecture was developed by Intel's R&D center in Haifa, Israel.

For desktop enthusiasts, Skylake is branded Core i7, and Core i9 processors (under the Core X series). For scalable server class processors, Intel branded it as Xeon Bronze, Xeon Silver, Xeon Gold, and Xeon Platinum.

There are a fair number of major differences in the Skylake server configuration vs the client configuration.

Codenames

See also: Client Skylake's Codenames

Core	Abbrev	Target
Skylake X	SKL-X	High-end desktops & enthusiasts market
Skylake W	SKL-W	Enterprise/Business workstations
Skylake SP	SKL-SP	Server Scalable Processors

Brands

See also: Client Skylake's Brands

Intel introduced a number of new server chip families with the introduction of Skylake SP as well as a new enthusiasts family with the introduction of Skylake X.

Logo	Family	General Description	Differentiating Features
			Cores	HT	AVX	AVX2	AVX-512	TBT	ECC
	Core i7	Enthusiasts/High Performance (X)	6 - 8	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✘
	Core i9	Enthusiasts/High Performance	10 - 18	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✘
Logo	Family	General Description	Differentiating Features
			Cores	HT	TBT	AVX-512	AVX-512 Units	UPI links	Scalability
	Xeon Bronze	Entry-level performance / Cost-sensitive	6 - 8	✘	✘	✔	1	2	Up to 2
	Xeon Silver	Mid-range performance / Efficient lower power	4 - 12	✔	✔	✔	1	2	Up to 2
	Xeon Gold 5000	High performance	4 - 14	✔	✔	✔	1	2	Up to 4
	Xeon Gold 6000	Higher performance	6 - 22	✔	✔	✔	2	3	Up to 4
	Xeon Platinum	Highest performance / flexibility	4 - 28	✔	✔	✔	2	3	Up to 8

Release Dates

Skylake-based Core X was introduced in May 2017 while Skylake SP was introduced in July 2017.

Process Technology

Main article: Kaby Lake § Process Technology

Unlike mainstream Skylake models, all Skylake server configuration models are fabricated on Intel's enhanced 14+ nm process which is used by Kaby Lake.

Compatibility

Vendor	OS	Version	Notes
Microsoft	Windows	Windows Server 2008	Support
		Windows Server 2008 R2
		Windows Server 2012
		Windows Server 2012 R2
		Windows Server 2016
Linux	Linux	Kernel 3.19	Initial Support (MPX support)

Compiler support

Compiler	Arch-Specific	Arch-Favorable
ICC	-march=skylake-avx512	-mtune=skylake-avx512
GCC	-march=skylake-avx512	-mtune=skylake-avx512
LLVM	-march=skylake-avx512	-mtune=skylake-avx512
Visual Studio	/arch:AVX2	/tune:skylake

CPUID

Core	Extended Family	Family	Extended Model	Model
X	0	0x6	0x5	0xE
	Family 6 Model 94
SP	0	0x6	0x5	0x5
	Family 6 Model 85

Architecture

Skylake server configuration introduces a number of significant changes from both Intel's previous microarchitecture, Broadwell, as well as the Skylake (client) architecture. Unlike client models, Skylake servers and HEDT models will still incorporate the fully integrated voltage regulator (FIVR) on-die. Those chips also have an entirely new multi-core architecture along with a new mesh topology interconnect network (from ring topology).

Key changes from Broadwell

• Improved "14 nm+" process (see Kaby Lake § Process Technology)
• Omni-Path Architecture (OPA)
• Mesh architecture
  • Sub-NUMA Clustering (SNC) support (replaces the Cluster-on-Die (COD) implementation)
• Chipset
  • Wellsburg → Lewisburg
  • Bus/Interface to Chipset
    • DMI 3.0 (from 2.0)
      • Increase in transfer rate from 5.0 GT/s to 8.0 GT/s (~3.93GB/s up from 2GB/s) per lane
      • Limits motherboard trace design to 7 inches max from (down from 8) from the CPU to chipset
  • DMI upgraded to Gen3
• Core
  • Front End
    • LSD is disabled (Likely due to a bug; see § Front-end for details)
    • Larger legacy pipeline delivery (5 µOPs, up from 4)
      • Another simple decoder has been added.
    • Allocation Queue (IDQ)
      • Larger delivery (6 µOPs, up from 4)
      • 2.28x larger buffer (64/thread, up from 56)
      • Partitioned for each active threads (from unified)
    • Improved branch prediction unit
      • reduced penalty for wrong direct jump target
      • No specifics were disclosed
    • µOP Cache
      • instruction window is now 64 Bytes (from 32)
      • 1.5x bandwidth (6 µOPs/cycle, up from 4)
  • Execution Engine
    • Larger re-order buffer (224 entries, up from 192)
    • Larger scheduler (97 entries, up from 64)
      • Larger Integer Register File (180 entries, up from 168)
  • Back-end
    • Port 4 now performs 512b stores (from 256b)
    • Port 0 & Port 1 can now be fused to perform AVX-512
    • Port 5 now can do full 512b operations (not on all models)
  • Memory Subsystem
    • Larger store buffer (56 entries, up from 42)
    • Page split load penalty reduced 20-fold
    • Larger Write-back buffer
    • Store is now 64B/cycle (from 32B/cycle)
    • Load is now 2x64B/cycle (from 2x32B/cycle)

• Memory
  • L2$
    • Increased to 1 MiB/core (from 250 KiB/core)
  • L3$
    • Was made non-inclusive (from inclusive)
    • Reduced to 1.375 MiB/core (from 2.5 MiB/core)
  • DRAM
    • hex-channel DDR4-2666 (from quad-channel)

• TLBs
  • ITLB
    • 4 KiB page translations was changed from 4-way to 8-way associative
  • STLB
    • 4 KiB + 2 MiB page translations was changed from 6-way to 12-way associative
  • DMI/PEG are now on a discrete clock domain with BCLK sitting on its own domain with full-range granularity (1 MHz intervals)
• Testability
  • New support for Direct Connect Interface (DCI), a new debugging transport protocol designed to allow debugging of closed cases (e.g. laptops, embedded) by accessing things such as JTAG through any USB 3 port.

CPU changes

• Most ALU operations have 4 op/cycle 1 for 8 and 32-bit registers. 64-bit ops are still limited to 3 op/cycle. (16-bit throughput varies per op, can be 4, 3.5 or 2 op/cycle).
• MOVSX and MOVZX have 4 op/cycle throughput for 16->32 and 32->64 forms, in addition to Haswell's 8->32, 8->64 and 16->64 bit forms.
• ADC and SBB have throughput of 1 op/cycle, same as Haswell.
• Vector moves have throughput of 4 op/cycle (move elimination).
• Not only zeroing vector vpXORxx and vpSUBxx ops, but also vPCMPxxx on the same register, have throughput of 4 op/cycle.
• Vector ALU ops are often "standardized" to latency of 4. for example, vADDPS and vMULPS used to have L of 3 and 5, now both are 4.
• Fused multiply-add ops have latency of 4 and throughput of 0.5 op/cycle.
• Throughput of vADDps, vSUBps, vCMPps, vMAXps, their scalar and double analogs is increased to 2 op/cycle.
• Throughput of vPSLxx and vPSRxx with immediate (i.e. fixed vector shifts) is increased to 2 op/cycle.
• Throughput of vANDps, vANDNps, vORps, vXORps, their scalar and double analogs, vPADDx, vPSUBx is increased to 3 op/cycle.
• vDIVPD, vSQRTPD have approximately twice as good throughput: from 8 to 4 and from 28 to 12 cycles/op.
• Throughput of some MMX ALU ops (such as PAND mm1, mm2) is decreased to 2 or 1 op/cycle (users are expected to use wider SSE/AVX registers instead).

New instructions

See also: Client Skylake's New instructions

Skylake server introduced a number of new instructions:

• SGX1 - Software Guard Extensions, Version 1
• MPX -Memory Protection Extensions
• XSAVEC - Save processor extended states with compaction to memory
• XSAVES - Save processor supervisor-mode extended states to memory.
• CLFLUSHOPT - Flush & Invalidates memory operand and its associated cache line (All L1/L2/L3 etc..)
• AVX-512, specifically:
  • AVX512F - AVX-512 Foundation
  • AVX512CD - AVX-512 Conflict Detection
  • AVX512BW - AVX-512 Byte and Word
  • AVX512DQ - AVX-512 Doubleword and Quadword
  • AVX512VL - AVX-512 Vector Length
• PKU - Memory Protection Keys for Userspace
• PCOMMIT - PCOMMIT instruction
• CLWB - CLWB instruction

Block Diagram

Entire SoC Overview

Note that the LCC die is identical without the two bottom rows. The XCC (28-core) die has one additional row and two additional columns of cores. Otherwise the die is identical.

• CHA - Caching and Home Agent
• SF - Snooping Filter

Individual Core

Memory Hierarchy

Some major organizational changes were done to the cache hierarchy in Skylake server configuration vs Broadwell/Haswell. The memory hierarchy for Skylake's server and HEDT processors has been rebalanced. Note that the L3 is now non-inclusive and some of the SRAM from the L3 cache was moved into the private L2 cache.

• Cache
  • L0 µOP cache:
    • 1,536 µOPs, 8-way set associative
      • 32 sets, 6-µOP line size
      • statically divided between threads, per core, inclusive with L1I
  • L1I Cache:
    • 32 KiB, 8-way set associative
      • 64 sets, 64 B line size
      • shared by the two threads, per core
  • L1D Cache:
    • 32 KiB, 8-way set associative
    • 64 sets, 64 B line size
    • shared by the two threads, per core
    • 4 cycles for fastest load-to-use (simple pointer accesses)
      • 5 cycles for complex addresses
    • 128 B/cycle load bandwidth
    • 64 B/cycle store bandwidth
    • Write-back policy
  • L2 Cache:
    • Unified, 1 MiB, 16-way set associative
    • 64 B line size
    • Non-inclusive
    • 64 B/cycle bandwidth to L1$
    • Write-back policy
    • 14 cycles latency
  • L3 Cache:
    • 1.375 MiB/s, shared across all cores
      • Note that some models have non-default cache sizes which are larger due to some disabled cores
    • 64 B line size
    • 11-way set associative
    • Non-Inclusive
    • Write-back policy
    • 50-70 cycles latency

Skylake TLB consists of dedicated L1 TLB for instruction cache (ITLB) and another one for data cache (DTLB). Additionally there is a unified L2 TLB (STLB).

• TLBs:
  • ITLB
    • 4 KiB page translations:
      • 128 entries; 8-way set associative
      • dynamic partitioning
    • 2 MiB / 4 MiB page translations:
      • 8 entries per thread; fully associative
      • Duplicated for each thread
  • DTLB
    • 4 KiB page translations:
      • 64 entries; 4-way set associative
      • fixed partition
    • 2 MiB / 4 MiB page translations:
      • 32 entries; 4-way set associative
      • fixed partition
    • 1G page translations:
      • 4 entries; fully associative
      • fixed partition
  • STLB
    • 4 KiB + 2 MiB page translations:
      • 1536 entries; 12-way set associative
      • fixed partition
    • 1 GiB page translations:
      • 16 entries; 4-way set associative
      • fixed partition

Overview

Skylake-based servers have been entirely re-architected to meet the need for increased scalabiltiy and performance all while meeting power requirements. A superset model is shown on the right. Skylake-based servers are the first mainstream servers to make use of Intel's new mesh interconnect architecture, an architecture that was previously explored, experimented with, and enhanced with Intel's Phi many-core processors. Those processors are offered from 4 cores up to 28 cores with 8 to 56 threads. With Skylake, Intel now has a separate core architecture for those chips which incorporate a plethora of new technologies and features including support for the new AVX-512 instruction set extension.

All models incorporate 6 channels of DDR4 supporting up to 12 DIMMS for a total of 768 GiB (with extended models support 1.5 TiB). For I/O all models incorporate 48x (3x16) lanes of PCIe 3.0. There is an additional x4 lanes PCIe 3.0 reserved exclusively for DMI for the the Lewisburg chipset. For a selected number of models (specifically those with F suffix) have an Omni-Path Host Fabric Interface (HFI) on-package (see Integrated Omni-Path).

Skylake processors are designed for scalability, supporting 2-way, 4-way, and 8-way multiprocessing through Intel's new Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI) interconnect links, with two to three links being offered (see § Scalability). High-end models have node controller support allowing higher way (e.g., 32-way multiprocessing).

Core

Overview

Skylake shares most of the development vectors with its predecessor while introducing a one of new constraint. The overall goals were:

• Performance improvements - the traditional way of milking more performance by increasing the instructions per cycle as well as clock frequency.
• Power efficiency - reduction of power for all functional blocks
• Security enhancements - new security features are implemented in hardware in the core
• Configurability

Configurability

Intel has been experiencing a growing divergence in functionality over the last number of iterations of their microarchitecture between their mainstream consumer products and their high-end HPC/server models. Traditionally, Intel has been using the same exact core design for everything from their lowest end value models (e.g. Celeron) all the way up to the highest-performance enterprise models (e.g. Xeon E7). While the two have fundamentally different chip architectures, they use the same exact CPU core architecture as the building block.

This design philosophy has changed with Skylake. In order to better accommodate the different functionalities of each segment without sacrificing features or making unnecessary compromises Intel went with a configurable core. The Skylake core is a single development project, making up a master superset core. The project result in two derivatives: one for servers (the substance of this article) and one for clients. All mainstream models (from Celeron/Pentium all the way up to Core i7/Xeon E3) use the client core configuration. Server models (e.g. Xeon Gold/Xeon Platinum) are using the new server configuration instead.

The server core is considerably larger than the client one, featuring Advanced Vector Extensions 512 (AVX-512). Skylake servers support what was formerly called AVX3.2 (AVX512F + AVX512CD + AVX512BW + AVX512DQ + AVX512VL). Additionally, those processors Memory Protection Keys for Userspace (PKU), PCOMMIT, and CLWB.

Pipeline

The Skylake core focuses on extracting performance and reducing power through a number of key ways. Intel builds Skylake on previous microarchitectures, descendants of Sandy Bridge. For the core to increase the overall performance, Intel focused on extracting additional parallelism.

Front-end

For the most part, with the exception of the LSD, the front-end of the Skylake server core is identical to the client configuration. For in-depth detail of the Skylake front-end see Skylake (client) § Front-end.

The only major difference in the front-end from the client core configuration is the LSD. The Loop Stream Detector (LSD) has been disabled. While the exact reason is not known, it might be related to a severe issue that was experienced by the OCaml Development Team. The issue was patched via microcode on the client platform, however this change might indicate it was possibly disabled on there as well. The exact implications of this are unknown.

Execution engine

The Skylake server configuration core back-end is identical to the client configuration up to the scheduler. For in-depth detail of the Skylake back-end up to that point, see Skylake (client) § Execution engine.

Scheduler & 512-SIMD addition

The scheduler itself was increased by 50%; with up to 97 entries (from 64 in Broadwell) being competitively shared between the two threads. Skylake continues with a unified design; this is in contrast to designs such as AMD's Zen which uses a split design each one holding different types of µOPs. Scheduler includes the two register files for integers and vectors. It's in those register files that output operand data is store. In Skylake, the integer register file was also slightly increased from 160 entries to 180.

This is the first implementation to incorporate AVX-512, a 512-bit SIMD x86 instruction set extension. Intel introduced AVX-512 in two different ways:

In the simple implementation, the variants used in the entry-level and mid-range Xeon servers, AVX-512 fuses Port 0 and Port 1 to form a 512-bit unit. Since those two ports are 256-wide, an AVX-512 option that is dispatched by the scheduler to port 0 will execute on both ports. Note that unrelated operations can still execute in parallel. For example, an AVX-512 operation and an Int ALU operation may execute in parallel - the AVX-512 is dispatched on port 0 and use the AVX unit on port 1 as well and the Int ALU operation will execute independently in parallel on port 1.

In the high-end and highest performance Xeons, Intel added a second dedicated AVX-512 unit in addition to the fused Port0-1 operations described above. The dedicated unit is situated on Port 5.

Physically, Intel added 768 KiB L2 cache and the second AVX-512 VPU externally to the core.

Scheduler Ports & Execution Units

Scheduler Ports Designation
Port 0	Integer/Vector Arithmetic, Multiplication, Logic, Shift, and String ops	512-bit Vect ALU/Shift/Mul/FMA
	FP Add, Multiply, FMA
	Integer/FP Division and Square Root
	AES Encryption
	Branch2
Port 1	Integer/Vector Arithmetic, Multiplication, Logic, Shift, and Bit Scanning
	FP Add, Multiply, FMA
Port 5	Integer/Vector Arithmetic, Logic	512-bit Vect ALU/Shift/Mul/FMA
	Vector Permute
	x87 FP Add, Composite Int, CLMUL
Port 6	Integer Arithmetic, Logic, Shift
	Branch
Port 2	Load, AGU
Port 3	Load, AGU
Port 4	Store, AGU
Port 7	AGU

Execution Units
Execution Unit	# of Units	Instructions
ALU	4	add, and, cmp, or, test, xor, movzx, movsx, mov, (v)movdqu, (v)movdqa, (v)movap*, (v)movup*
DIV	1	divp*, divs*, vdiv*, sqrt*, vsqrt*, rcp*, vrcp*, rsqrt*, idiv
Shift	2	sal, shl, rol, adc, sarx, adcx, adox, etc...
Shuffle	1	(v)shufp*, vperm*, (v)pack*, (v)unpck*, (v)punpck*, (v)pshuf*, (v)pslldq, (v)alignr, (v)pmovzx*, vbroadcast*, (v)pslldq, (v)psrldq, (v)pblendw
Slow Int	1	mul, imul, bsr, rcl, shld, mulx, pdep, etc...
Bit Manipulation	2	andn, bextr, blsi, blsmsk, bzhi, etc
FP Mov	1	(v)movsd/ss, (v)movd gpr
SIMD Misc	1	STTNI, (v)pclmulqdq, (v)psadw, vector shift count in xmm
Vec ALU	3	(v)pand, (v)por, (v)pxor, (v)movq, (v)movq, (v)movap*, (v)movup*, (v)andp*, (v)orp*, (v)paddb/w/d/q, (v)blendv*, (v)blendp*, (v)pblendd
Vec Shift	2	(v)psllv*, (v)psrlv*, vector shift count in imm8
Vec Add	2	(v)addp*, (v)cmpp*, (v)max*, (v)min*, (v)padds*, (v)paddus*, (v)psign, (v)pabs, (v)pavgb, (v)pcmpeq*, (v)pmax, (v)cvtps2dq, (v)cvtdq2ps, (v)cvtsd2si, (v)cvtss2si
Vec Mul	2	(v)mul*, (v)pmul*, (v)pmadd*
This table was taken verbatim from the Intel manual. Execution unit mapping to MMX instructions are not included.

Memory subsystem

Skylake's memory subsystem is in charge of the loads and store requests and ordering. Since Haswell, it's possible to sustain two memory reads (on ports 2 and 3) and one memory write (on port 4) each cycle. Each memory operation can be of any register size up to 512 bits. Skylake memory subsystem has been improved. The store buffer has been increased by 42 entries from Broadwell to 56 for a total of 128 simultaneous memory operations in-flight or roughly 60% of all µOPs. Special care was taken to reduce the penalty for page-split loads; previously scenarios involving page-split loads were thought to be rarer than they actually are. This was addressed in Skylake with page-split loads are now made equal to other splits loads. Expect page split load penalty down to 5 cycles from 100 cycles in Broadwell. The average latency to forward a load to store has also been improved and stores that miss in the L1$ generate L2$ requests to the next level cache much earlier in Skylake than before.

The L2 to L1 bandwidth in Skylake is the same as Haswell at 64 bytes per cycle in either direction. Note that one operation can be done each cycle; i.e., the L1 can either receive data from the L1 or send data to the Load/Store buffers each cycle, but not both. Latency from L2$ to L3$ has also been increased from 4 cycles/line to 2 cycles/line.

The medium level cache (MLC) and last level cache (LLC) was rebalanced. Traditionally, Intel had a 256 KiB L2 cache which was duplicated along with the L1s over in the LLC which was 2.5 MiB. That is, prior to Skylake, the 256 KiB L2 cache actually took up 512 KiB of space for a total of 2.25 mebibytes effective cache per core. In Skylake Intel doubled the L2 and quadrupled the effective capacity to 1 MiB while decreasing the LLC to 1.375 MiB. The LLC is also now made non-inclusive, i.e., the L2 may or may not be in the L3 (no guarantee is made); what stored where will depend on the particular access pattern of the executing application, the size of code and data accessed, and the inter-core sharing behavior. Having an inclusive L3 makes cache coherence considerably easier to implement. Snooping only requires checking the L3 cache tags to know if the data is on board and in which core. It also makes passing data around a bit more efficient. It's currently unknown what mechanism is being used to reduce snooping. In the past, Intel has discussed a couple of additional options they were researching such as NCID (non-inclusive cache, inclusive directory architecture). It's possible that a NCID is being used in Skylake or a related derivative. These changes also mean that software optimized for data placing in the various caches needs to be revised for the new changes, particularly in situations where data is not shared, the overall capacity can be treated as L2+L3 for a total of 2.375 MiB.

New Technologies

Software Guard Extension (SGX)

Main article: Intel's Software Guard Extension

Software Guard Extension (SGX) is a new inter-software guard x86 extension that allows software in user-level mode to create isolated secure environments called "enclaves" for storing data or code. Data and code stored in enclaves are protected from external processes including code executing with higher privileges including the operating system or a hypervisor (including all forms of debugging).

Memory Protection Extension (MPX)

Main article: Intel's Memory Protection Extension

Memory Protection Extension (MPX) is a new x86 extension that offers a hardware-level bound checking implementation. This extension allows an application to define memory boundaries for allocated memory areas. The processors can then check all proceeding memory accesses against those boundaries to ensure accesses are not out of bound. A program accessing a boundary-marked buffer out of buffer will generate an exception.

Key Protection Technology (KPT)

Key Protection Technology (KPT) is designed to help secure sensitive private keys in hardware at runtime. KPT augments QuickAssist Technology (QAT) hardware crypto accelerators with run-time storage of private keys using Intel's existing Platform Trust Technology (PTT), thereby allowing high throughput hardware security acceleration. The QAT accelerators are all integrated onto Intel's new Lewisburg chipset along with the Converged Security Manageability Engine (CSME) which implements Intel's PTT. The CSME is linked through a private hardware link that is invisible to x86 software and simple hardware probes.

Memory Protection Keys for Userspace (PKU)

Memory Protection Keys for Userspace (PKU also PKEYs) is an extension that provides a mechanism for enforcing page-based protections - all without requiring modification of the page tables when an application changes protection domains. PKU introduces 16 keys by re-purposing the 4 ignored bits from the page table entry.

Mode-Based Execute (MBE) Control

Mode-Based Execute (MBE) is an enhancement to the Extended Page Tables (EPT) that provides finer level of control of execute permissions. With MBE the previous Execute Enable (X) bit is turned into Excuse Userspace page (XU) and Execute Supervisor page (XS). The processor selects the mode based on the guest page permission. With proper software support, hypervisors can take advantage of this as well to ensure integrity of kernel-level code.

Mesh Architecture

On the previous number of generations, Intel has been adding cores onto the die and connecting them via a ring architecture. This was sufficient until recently. With each generation, the added cores increased the access latency while lowering the available bandwidth per core. Intel mitigated this problem by splitting up the die into two halves each on its own ring. This reduced hopping distance and added additional bandwidth but it did not solve the growing fundamental inefficiencies of the ring architecture.

This was completely addressed with the new mesh architecture that is implemented in the Skylake server processors. The mesh is arranged as a matrix of vertical and horizontal communication paths which allow communication to take the shortest path to the correct node. The new mesh architecture implements a modular design for the routing resources in order to remove the various bottlenecks. That is, the mesh architecture now integrates the caching agent, the home agent, and the IO subsystem on the mesh interconnect distributed across all the cores. Each core now has its own associated LLC slice as well as the snooping filter and the Caching and Home Agent (CHA). Additional nodes such as the two memory controllers, the Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI) nodes and PCIe are not independent node on the mesh as well and they now behave identically to any other node/core in the network. This means that in addition to the performance increase expected from core-to-core and core-to-memory latency, there should be substantial increase in I/O performance. The CHA which is found on each of the LLC slices now maps addresses being accessed to the specific LLC bank, memory controller, or I/O subsystem. This provides the necessary information required for the routing to take place.

Cache Coherency

Given the new mesh architecture, new tradeoffs were involved. The new UPI inter-socket links are a valuable resource that could bottlenecked when flooded with unnecessary cross-socket snoop requests. There's also considerably higher memory bandwidth with Skylake which can impact performance. As a compromise, the previous four snoop modes (no-snoop, early snoop, home snoop, and directory) have been reduced to just directory-base coherency. This also alleviates the implementation complexity (which is already complex enough in itself).

It should be pointed out that the directory-base coherency optimizations that were done in previous generations have been furthered improved with Skylake - particularly OSB, HitME cache, IO directory cache. Skylake maintained support for Opportunistic Snoop Broadcast (OSB) which allows the network to opportunistically make use of the UPI links when idle or lightly loaded thereby avoiding an expensive memory directory lookup. With the mesh network and distributed CHAs, HitME is now distributed and scales with the CHAs, enhancing the speeding up of cache-to-cache transfers (Those are your migratory cache lines that frequently get transferred between nodes). Specifically for I/O operations, the I/O directory cache (IODC), which was introduced with Haswell, improves stream throughput by eliminating directory reads for InvItoE from snoopy caching agent. Previously this was implemented as a 64-entry directory cache to complement the directory in memory. In Skylake, with a distributed CHA at each node, the IODC is implemented as an eight-entry directory cache per CHA.

Sub-NUMA Clustering

In previous generations Intel had a feature called cluster-on-die (COD) which was introduced with Haswell. With Skylake, there's a similar feature called sub-NUMA cluster (SNC). With a memory controller physically located on each side of the die, SNC allows for the creation of two localized domains with each memory controller belonging to each domain. The processor can then map the addresses from the controller to the distributed home ages and LLC in its domain. This allows executing code to experience lower LLC and memory latency within its domain compared to accesses outside of the domain.

It should be pointed out that in contrast to COD, SNC has a unique location for every adddress in the LCC and is never duplicated across LLC banks (previously, COD cache lines could have copies). Additionally, on multiprocessor system, address mapped to memory on remote sockets are still uniformally distributed across all LLC banks irrespective of the localized SNC domain.

Scalability

See also: QuickPath Interconnect and Ultra Path Interconnect

In the last couple of generations, Intel has been utilizing QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) which served as a high-speed point-to-point interconnect. QPI has been replaced by the Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI) which is higher-efficiency coherent interconnect for scalable systems, allowing multiple processors to share a single shared address space. Depending on the exact model, each processor can have either either two or three UPI links connecting to the other processors.

UPI links eliminate some of the scalability limitations that surfaced in QPI over the past few microarchitecture iterations. They use directory-based home snoop coherency protocol and operate at up either 10.4 GT/s or 9.6 GT/s. This is quite a bit different form previous generations. In addition to the various improvements done to the protocol layer, Skylake SP now implements a distributed CHA that is situated along with the LLC bank on each core. It's in charge of tracking the various requests form the core as well as responding to snoop requests from both local and remote agents. The ease of distributing the home agent is a result of Intel getting rid of the requirement on preallocation of resources at the home agent. This also means that future architectures should be able to scale up well.

Depending on the exact model, Skylake processors can scale from 2-way all the way up to 8-way multiprocessing. Note that the high-end models that support 8-way multiprocessing also only come with three UPI links for this purpose while the lower end processors can have either two or three UPI links. Below are the typical configurations for those processors.

Integrated Omni-Path

See also: Intel's Omni-Path

A number of Skylake SP models (specifically those with the "F" suffix) incorporate the Omni-Path Host Fabric Interface (HFI) on-package. This was previously done with the Knights Landing ("F" suffixed) models. This, in addition to improving cost and power efficiencies, also eliminates the dependency on the x16 PCIe lanes on the motherboard. With the HFI on package, the chip can be plugged in directly to the IFT (Internal Faceplate Transition) carrier via a separate IFP (Internal Faceplate-to-Processor) 1-port cable (effectively a Twinax cable).

Regardless of the model, the integrated fabric die has a TDP of 8 Watts (note that this value is already included in the model's TDP value).

Sockets/Platform

Both Skylake X and PS are a two-chip solution linked together via Intel's standard DMI 3.0 bus interface which utilizes 4 PCIe 3.0 lanes (having a transfer rate of 8 GT/s per lane). Skylake SP has additional SMP capabilities which utilizes either 2 or 3 (depending on the model) Ultra Path Interconnect (UPI) links.

	Core	Socket	Permanent	Platform	Chipset	Chipset Bus	SMP Interconnect
	Skylake X	LGA-2066	No	2-chip	Lewisburg	DMI 3.0	✘
	Skylake SP	LGA-3647		2-chip + 2-8-way SMP			UPI

Packages

Core	Die Type	Package	Dimensions
Skylake SP	LCC	FCLGA-3647	76.16 mm x 56.6 mm
	HCC
	XCC
Skylake X	LCC	FCLGA-2066	58.5 mm x 51 mm
	HCC

Die

See also: Client Skylake's Die

Skylake Server class models and high-end desktop (HEDT) consist of 3 different dies: Low Core Count (LCC), High Core Count (HCC), and Extreme Core Count (XCC).

Low Core Count (LCC)

• 14 nm process
•  ? metal layers
• ~22.26 mm x ~14.62 mm
• ~325.44 mm² die size
• 10 cores

High Core Count (HCC)

Die shot of the octadeca core HEDT Skylake X processors.

• 14 nm process
•  ? metal layers
•  ? mm² die size
• 18 cores

Extreme Core Count (XCC)

• 14 nm process
•  ? metal layers
•  ? mm² die size
• 28 cores

All Skylake Chips

References

• Intel Unveils Powerful Intel Xeon Scalable Processors, Live Event, July 11, 2017

Documents

• New Intel Core X-Series Processor Family
• Intel Xeon (Skylake SP) Processors Product Brief
• Intel Xeon (Skylake SP) Processors Product Overview